Accounting
Accounts, journal entries, NAS and IFRS Articles not yet translated are shown in Uzbek.
Software has been purchased: should it be recorded as an intangible asset or expensed, and when does amortization start?
A freight company bought a route-planning program. If six requirements of NAS No. 7 are met at the same time, the program is recognized as an asset in account 0430; otherwise it is an expense. What goes into the initial cost and what does not, and why amortization starts not in the month of purchase but on the 1st day of the next month: one example, with a 60-month schedule.
Document and receipt: why is everything recorded?
The twelfth Basics lesson: at Qodir's shop a cash shortage turned up at the end of the day. What a document and a receipt are, why they are needed and how to find a missing entry, with a simple calculation.
How to liquidate a fixed asset: six stages from the commission to closing account 9210
An old steam boiler has broken down. Who inspects it, which certificate form is filled in, who approves it, when may it be cut up and how is the scrap metal taken into stock? Paragraphs 54–58 of NAS No. 5, three appendix forms and NAS No. 21 journal entries, using a cannery as the example.
Returnable containers and single-use packaging: on which account are containers kept, what happens if a deposit is not returned and where is the expense recorded?
A drinking water company gives 19-litre bottles to customers against a deposit and packs small bottles into cardboard boxes. Which packaging goes into cost and which into selling expenses, why a returned deposit is not income, and what happens to a bottle that does not come back: the example of one company under NAS No. 4 and NAS No. 21.
What are wages and how are they calculated?
The tenth Basics lesson: the pay of two workers at a car wash is calculated in two different ways. One by the number of cars washed, the other by the days worked. We see what wages mean for the worker and for the employer.
How are profit and loss calculated?
The sixth Basics lesson: two weeks of a watermelon seller, one ending in profit and the other in loss. We calculate how much is left from one watermelon and how a loss can be reduced.
One set of data, the whole company: how did ERP systems emerge, and how did they change accounting?
In the 1960s factories began calculating their raw material needs by computer, in 1972 five former IBM employees founded SAP, and in the early 1990s the term "ERP" appeared. Accounting turned from a separate program into part of the company's shared system. Short theses and a calculation of how much time reconciliation between separate programs takes.
From law to standard: how have Uzbekistan's accounting rules taken shape from 1996 to today?
An accountant's daily work rests on a two-tier set of rules: at the top, the Law "On Accounting", and beneath it, the national standards (NAS, BHMS). The Law was adopted in 1996 and issued in a new version in 2016, while the standards were renewed in several waves from 1998 to 2024. A table of dates, official documents and the rules by which to read an archived report.
Scissors, overalls, desk sets: when do tools, implements and household supplies become an expense, and why are they tracked again on off-balance sheet account 014?
A sewing workshop bought scissors, overalls for its staff and desk sets for the accounting office. They are not fixed assets, but they do not vanish in one go either. The criteria of NAS No. 4, writing off from account 1080 to expenses, control on off-balance sheet account 014 and write-off when items become unusable: a numerical example and journal entries.
Income and expenses: shown on a family and a shop
The fifth Basics lesson: where money comes from, where it goes and what is left at the end of the month. We put one family budget and the accounts of one bread shop side by side.
Assets, liabilities and equity: how does accounting answer the questions «what do we have» and «where did it come from» on the day a café opens?
The second lesson of the course: the nine most essential accounting terms (asset, liability, equity, liabilities and equity as sources, accounts receivable and accounts payable, balance sheet, account, primary document) shown on the opening day of one café, and why the two sides of the balance sheet always come out equal.
Filling in the balance sheet (Form 1) line by line: which account balance goes on each line?
All lines of the balance sheet under Appendix 1 to the Regulation approved by Order No. 181: line code, the accounts in brackets and a plain explanation for each. Where depreciation, amortisation, the trade markup and the allowance for doubtful debts are deducted, which formula gives each total line, and how the appendix on overdue debts is prepared. At the end, a balance sheet filled in from the account balances of a small furniture workshop.
What is accounting: where does the word meaning «book holder» come from, and who needs this record-keeping?
The first lesson of the course: what accounting is in plain words, which German word the Uzbek word «buxgalter» (accountant) comes from, what a notebook gives a café owner, and who has contributed to this field. For a reader who knows nothing yet.
The Zenon papyri: how did the manager of a large estate in Egypt keep accounts 2 300 years ago?
At the beginning of the 20th century, local diggers in the Faiyum oasis in Egypt found an archive of more than two thousand papyri. These were the letters, contracts and accounting records of Zenon, an agent who managed a large estate in the 3rd century BC. Short key points and an example of the receipts and issues of a grain store.
If a buyer is given a discount after the sale: how does account 9050 work and how is revenue reduced?
A wholesale furniture company gave a shop a volume bonus at the end of the quarter and cut the price for scratched tables for another buyer. How both cases are recorded through 9050, how it is closed at the end of the month and what net revenue comes out in the statements.
Accounting without writing: how did the Inca Empire keep its accounts on knotted cords?
How did an empire with no writing keep track of its population, harvests and livestock? The answer: in coloured cords and the knots tied in them. Short key points about the Andean accounting device called the "quipu", and an example checked with a summary cord.
Finished goods from receipt into the warehouse until sale: account 2810 and journal entries at actual cost
A carpet workshop accumulated costs throughout the month and at month-end delivered 300 carpets to the warehouse. How is the actual cost of one carpet obtained, how are a sale, an exhibition, office use and a shortage written off from 2810, and how is the variance allocated when records are kept at a standard price: a full calculation.
What is recorded in the books when a joint-stock company issues shares and buys back its own shares?
Issuing additional shares, receiving money from subscribers, a price above face value (8410 "Share premium"), issue costs (9630), buying back own shares (8610), reselling and cancelling them: journal entries using «Zarafshon Keramika» JSC as an example, based only on rows of NAS No. 21.
A company buys shares of another company: how is it accounted for? (NAS No. 12)
How short-term (5810) and long-term (0610) investments are told apart, what goes into the purchase cost, what to do when the market price changes at year-end, how a dividend and the result of a sale are recorded. Using «Ipaksoy Tekstil» LLC as an example, with paragraphs of NAS No. 12 and rows of NAS No. 21.
Issuing and buying bonds: accounting by the issuer and the investor
For the issuer — selling bonds at a discount or premium (0960, 3220, 7220, 6220), accruing the coupon, transferring to the current portion and redemption; for the investor — buying a bond (0610, 5810), accruing the discount, receiving the coupon and redemption. Using «Chorvoq Energiya» JSC and «Kumushkon Agro» LLC as examples, based only on rows of NAS No. 21.
An error found in last year's financial statements: what should you do? (NAS No. 1, Chapter 10)
Change in accounting policy, change in accounting estimate, material and non-material error: a decision table based on paragraphs 108–118 of NAS No. 1. Using «Sabo Mebel» as an example, we show how depreciation understated last year is corrected, how comparative figures are restated and what goes into the notes.
Why accounting is needed: its five functions shown on one bakery
Using one month at the «Tong non» bakery, we walk through the five functions of accounting: a cost budget, the path from document to journal entry, splitting a plan-versus-actual variance into causes, who needs the figures, and a markup and margin analysis.
Contract, charter, minutes and certificate: 8 ready-made samples (services, employment contract, LLC charter, change of director, car sale, sale of a share, liquidation)
8 complete samples using fictional companies: a services agreement, an employment contract, a certificate of employment, a single-founder LLC charter, minutes of participants' meetings on changing the director and selling a car, an agreement for the sale of part of a share and a decision to liquidate an LLC. NAS No. 21 journal entries for services, wages and the sale of a fixed asset, Word (DOCX) files.
Company orders and founder's decisions: 9 ready-made samples (bonus, hiring, leave, accounting policy, inventory count, dividends)
How a director's order differs from a sole founder's decision, their structure and 9 complete samples: holiday bonus, hiring, annual leave, accounting policy (with contents based on NAS No. 1), inventory count (NAS No. 19), financial assistance, appointing the director, distributing net profit and increasing the charter capital. Each comes with journal entries under NAS No. 21 and a Word (DOCX) file.
How to keep track of goods and materials received and issued: turnover register, goods report and Excel template
Two registers that an accountant of a trading company keeps month by month: a quantity-and-amount turnover register and a goods report at selling prices. Cost of issues by the weighted average method, how the markup and VAT columns relate, and journal entries from the NAS No. 21 table — with a worked example. An Excel template with formulas and a completed example.
IFRS financial statement forms: financial position, profit or loss, equity and cash flows (Order No. 181, Appendices 5–8)
Appendices 5–8 to the Regulation approved by Order No. 181 in full: the statement of financial position, the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income, the statement of changes in equity and the statement of cash flows (indirect method), with line codes. Who submits them and by when, and how the forms connect (a numerical example). Blank forms in PDF and Excel.
Financial statement forms from 2025: balance sheet, financial results, equity and cash flows (Order No. 181)
The complete NAS forms under the Regulation approved by Order No. 181: the balance sheet and its appendix, and the statements of financial results, equity and cash flows, with line codes and account codes. Who submits which forms and by when, and how the lines connect (a numerical example). Blank forms in PDF and Excel.
The advance report after a business trip: what journal entries are made if the money ran short, was left over or was not returned?
Giving money for a trip, getting a report after return, paying the employee extra or recovering the balance: three different situations of three employees on accounts 4220 and 6970, with journal entries tied to the lines of the NAS No. 21 tables.
From the paper "spreadsheet" to Excel: how did the electronic spreadsheet change the accountant's work?
The word "spreadsheet" came from the accounting ledger: a paper sheet ruled into columns and rows moved onto the screen and began to calculate by itself. A Harvard student's idea, the rivalry between Lotus and Excel, famous formula errors and spreadsheets in the cloud.
Natural loss norm: what is the difference between a shortage within the norm and above it?
It is natural for rice to dry out and sugar to spill, losing a little. But when is this loss charged to expenses as "within the norm", and when is it claimed from the person at fault as a shortage? The rules and a rice warehouse example.